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英语国家概况名词解释
1. William the Conqueror 威廉征服: William was Duke of Normandy. He landed his army in Oct.1066 and defeated king Harold. Then he was crowned king of England on Christmas Day the same year. He established a strong Norman government and the feudal system in England.建立了封建制度
2. Doomsday Book----It is a book compiled by a group of clerks under the sponsorship of King William the First in 1086. The book was in fact a property record. It was the result of a general survey of England. It recorded the extent, value, state of cultivation, and ownership of the land. It was one of the important measures adopted by William I to establish the full feudal system in England. Today, it is kept in the Public Records Office in London. 为了可靠地记录所有的土地、佃户和他们的财产并查明他们能交多少税，威廉派官员编了一本财产清册，称为《末日审判书》。因为对英国人来说，这本 土地清册无疑就是最后审判日那天众王之王所用的《末日书》。此册完成于1086 年，它记录了1085 年作的英国全国总调查的结果。此册陈述了土地的范围、价值、人口、耕种情况和所有权。现在《末日审判书》保存在伦敦的公共档案馆里。从此册可以看出，在1086年，农村约有一半的耕地掌握在10 个承租人(贵族)手里，其中只有两个是英国贵族，约五分之一土地归国王本人所有。其余大多数属于主教、修道院院长和其他修道院头领
3. the Black Death----It is a modern name given to the dearly bubonic plague, an epidemic disease spread through Europe in the fourteenth century
particularly in 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without any cue. In England, it killed almost half of the total population, causing far-reaching
economic consequences. 黑死病是现代名称，指的是由鼠身上的跳蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的传染疾病。14 世纪传播到欧洲，尤其是在1347 - 1350 年。1348 年夏天横扫全英国，事先毫无征兆。但重要的是无药可救。不论贫富不放过任何人，死亡 迅速而痛苦。它夺去了二分之一到一半的英国人的生命，加上随后50 年中发生的流行病，英国的人口在14 世纪末从400 万税减至200 万。
4. The Wars of Roses玫瑰战争----the name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened..是对外战争和国内不稳定导致贵族们之间冲突再起，却令人回想起13 世纪的麻烦。1455至1485 年间政局不稳定是两支金雀花家族争斗引起的，它们是兰开斯特家族和约克家族。实际上，玫瑰战争这个词是19 世纪的大作家瓦尔特司考特创造的，但它已被普遍接受，专指这两个家族间的战争。因·为红玫瑰代表兰开斯特家族，而白玫瑰则是约克家族的象征尽管玫瑰战争断断续续进行了三十年，但普通民众所受影响甚微，他们照常从事各自营生。封建制度却遭受了致命打击。不少于80 位皇族血统的贵族阵亡，中世纪的贵族势力被大大削弱，名誉扫地。至此国王的权力变得至高无上
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5. The Bill of Rights----In 1789, James Madison introduced in the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later were drafted into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and the first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bills of Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.1789年詹姆斯麦迪逊在众议院提出了一系列的修正法案，后来这些法案被起草成十二条修正法案提交各州讨论。其·中有两条没被各州通过，其余十条在1791 年被通过，成为宪法的前十项修正案--《人权法案》。从那时起美国就完成了宪法体制的建立
6. The British constitution: There is no written constitution in the United Kingdom, that is, unlike the constitutions of most other countries, the British constitution is not set out in any single document. It is made up of statute law, common law and conventions.英国议会制政府制度并不是基于成文宪法。联合王国没有成文宪法，也就是说与大多数他国宪法不同，英国宪法不由单一文件构成，而是由成文法、习惯法和惯例组成。(惯例是指法律没有明文要求必须执行，但被视为政府工作中不可缺少的行为准则)。司-法-部门裁定习惯法和解释成文法。
7. The Great lakes----The Great Lakes are the five lakes in the northeast. They are Lake Superior which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michigan (the only one entirely in the U.S.), Lake Huron, Lake Eire and Lake Ontario. They are all located between Canada and the United States expect Lake Michigan.美国最重要的湖泊就是五大湖。这五大湖包括：苏必利尔湖--世界上最大的淡水湖，密歇根湖(唯一完全在美国境内的湖)，休伦湖，伊利湖和安大略湖。除密歇根湖全部属美国外，其他均为美国和加拿大之间的界湖。
8. The Emancipation Proclamation-（解放宣言）---After the Civil war began, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to win more support at home and abroad. It granted freedom to all slaves in areas still controlled by the Confederacy. 1863年1月1日，林肯总统发表了《解放宣言》，正是解放美国所有的奴隶。
9. checks and balances: 制衡the United states has three separate branches of government: the of government: the legislative, executive ,and judicial .Each branch has a portion of constitutional authority and can check or block the actions of the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. the three branches are thus in balance .this is a system of checks and balances美国政府的三个分支：在政府立法，执行，和司法。每个分支具有宪法权力的一部分，可以检查或其他部门的行为块。三个部门是平衡三个部门是平衡的。这是一 个制衡制度。
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10. The Great Depression: It refers to the economic depression started from the New York stock market collapse on October24, 1929.After that, thousands of banks and businesses failed. Many people lost their jobs, It was due to the
New Deal started in 1933 and the defense buildup before and during World War II that the United States finally recovered from the Great Depression大萧条：它指的是在经济萧条的october241929纽约股票市场崩溃的开始。之后，银行和数千家企业失败。许多人失去了他们的工作，这是由于新政开始在1933之前和第二次世界大战期间，美国从大萧条中恢复的最后的国防建设
11. Industrial revolution: The Industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Britain was the first country to industrialize工业革命：工业革命是指工业的机械化，并在第十八年末和第十九世纪初英国社会和经济组织的变化随之而来。英国成为第一个工业化的国家
12. The New Deal-新政---In order to deal with the Depression, President Franklin Roosevelt put forward the New Deal program. It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficient social security systems. The New Deal helped to save American democracy and the development of American economy. "罗斯福确实马上开始行动。在进入白宫后的第一个100 天里，他使国会通过了许多法案，旨在阻止经济状况的进一步恶化，帮助需要帮助的人们正如罗斯福总统所说，这些措施的目的在于"拯救美国的民-主"。这些措施确实有助于克服当时资本
13. Counterculture: 反主流文化Counterculture was a movement of revolt against the moral values, the aesthetic standards, the personal behavior and the social relations of conventional society. 反文化是对运动的道德价值观的反叛，审美标准，个人行为和社会关系的传统。
14. Constitutional monarchy君主立宪制----It is a political system that has been practiced in Britain since the Glorious revolution of 1688. According to this system, the Constitution is superior to the Monarch. In law, the Monarch has many supreme powers, but in practice, the real power of monarchy has been greatly reduced and today the Queen acts solely on the advice of her ministers. She reigns but does not rule. The real power lies in the Parliament, or to be exact, in the House of Commons. 这是一个政治制度，已实行在英国1688的光荣革命以来。根据此制度，宪法是优越的君主。在法律上，君主具有最高权力，但在实践中，君主制的实力已大大减少，今天女王行为完全在她的部长的建议。她统治但不规则。真正的力量在于议会，或者更确切地说，在下议院。
15. The hundred years war:英法百年战争The Hundred Years War was a series of wars between England and France. The background of the Hundred Years War went as far back as to the reign of William the Conqueror. When William the Conqueror became king in 1066 after his victory at the Battle of Hastings, he united England with Normandy in France. William ruled both as his own.
英语国家概况名词解释2017-04-09 13:32 | #2楼
Anglo-Saxons : They were two groups of Germanic peoples who settled down in England from the 5 th century . They were regarded as the ancestors of the English and the founders of England .
Sinn Fein : Sinn Fein is a legal political party in Northern Ireland which supports the IRA to fight for the un-io-n of Ireland . The leaders of Sinn Fein prefer un-io-n with Ireland by a twin campaign , both military and political which they call the policy of “the Bullet and the Ballot Box “ . It believes that without the participation of Sinn Fein the political problem of Northern Ireland cannot be thoroughly solved .
Home Rule : Ireland had long been dominated by Britain , but Irish desire for an independent Irish state was never lost .”Home Rule “refers to a campaign for Irish affairs. The Home Rule Bill was finally passed in 1914 , but the process was overtaken by the First World War and was suspended for the duration of the war .
The Bill of Rights of 1689 : In 1689 , King James Ⅱ’s daughter Mary and her husband William were invited by the politicians and church authorities to take the throne , on condition that they would respect the rights of Parliament . The Bill of Rights was passed in 1689 to ensure that the King would never be able to ignore Parliament.
The functions of Parliament : The functions of Parliament are : to pass laws , to vote for taxation , to scrutinize government policy , administration and expenditure and to debate the major issues of the day .
The House of Commons : The House of Commons is the real centre of British political life because it is the place where about 650 elected representatives (Members of Parliament ) make and debate policy . These MPs are elected in the General Elections and should represent the interests of people who vote for them . The importance of general elections : General elections are very important in
western democracy . According to the author , they provide opportunities for people to influence future government policies and to replace those incompetent political leaders . Privatization in the 1980s : The British economy went through a particularly bad period in the 1970s , with high rates of inflation and devaluation of the Pound . Therefore , in the 1980s , when the Conservative party under Margaret Thatcher was in power , an extensive programme of privatization was carried out . Many state-owned businesses (such as steel , telecom , gas , aerospace ) were turned into private companies .
Privatization was successful in controlling inflation but at the same time
unemployment rate increased rapidly .
Comprehensive schools : Comprehensive schools are the most popular secondary schools in Britain today . Such schools admit children without reference to their
academic abilities and provide a general education . Pupils can study everything from academic subjects like literature to more practical subjects like cooking .
The Open University : The Open University was founded in Britain in the 1960’s for people who might not get the opportunity for higher education for
economic and social reasons . It’s open to everybody and does not demand the same formal educational qualifications as the other universities . University courses are
followed through TV , radio ,correspondence , videos and a net work of study centers . At the end of their studies at the Open University , successful students are awarded a university degree .
Eisteddfod Wales has a long poetic tradition. Poems written in the traditional Welsh language and style are governed by ancient codes and convention . This poetic tradition has been celebrated for centuries in eisteddfod , a Welsh word meaning a gathering where people recite verses and sing songs . Wales had been controlled by the English for hundreds of years and so English became the national language . Speaking Welsh was seen as a bad thing .The Welsh language began to die , but Welsh speaker fought hard to preserve it . One way they accomplished this was to celebrate their culture and their language each August with a really large Eisteddfod which would remind people throughout the UK of Wales’ special culture heritage .The Eisteddfod is now the largest popular festival of music ma-ki-ng and poetry writing in Europe .
The Great Famine The Great Famine took place from 1845—48 when successive potato crops failed and many people of Ireland starved to death , or died of the diseases which preyed on malnutrition . Many left the country for the New World. The Great Famine became a watershed in Irish history , not merely because there was mass starvation and emigration , but also because the British government appeared to be indifferent to the fate of the poorest people in its nearest colony .Naturally this period is characterized by campaigns for national independence and land reform .
The Easter Rising of 1916 It was a rebellion by Irish nationalists against British rule on 24 April 1916 (Easter Monday ) . The Irish Volunteers , led by Patrick Pearse and the Irish Citizen Army , led by James Connolly , staged the uprising . The
British crushed the rising within a week and executed its leaders . A wave of nationalist sentiment produced an electoral victory for Sinn Fein in 1918 .
Checks and balances The Irish system of government is based on the American principle of “checks and balances “ : that is , the power of the executive branch of government can be checked by the legislature (the two houses of parliament ) and by the judiciary , through courts which interpret the law . Enforcement is also part of the role of the courts of law , and is actually carried out by the police force .Both the legal system and the police force are conceived of as independent of political influence .
The Civil Service The civil service in Ireland is divided into sixteen Government Departments , each headed by a minister appointed by the Prime Minister . Ministers have final responsibility for those areas. The civil service is politically independent in the performance of its duties and has no involvement in party politics . In fact , party political activity is strictly forbidden for all middle and high-ranking civil servants .Recruitment to the civil service is by public competitive exams administered by the independent Civil Service Commission and is open to every citizen of the Republic . At present , there are some 30000 people employed in the civil service .
The Dreaming The Dreaming is the belief system from ancient times that has bound indigenous group together . The central principle of the Dreaming is that the people who live on the continent have special responsibilities to the land . The people don’t own the land , instead the land owns the people . The stories of the Dreaming provide principles of how people should live and interact with each other .They also provide knowledge of the land so that the indigenous people can survive in the life-threatening environment .
Terra Nullius Terra Nullius is from Latin. It means a land that is owned by no one . The British declared the Australian continent Terra Nullius to justify their invasion of the indigenous people’s land . It served to legitimize their taking possession of the land and devalue the indigenous people as uncivilized and not fully human .
Pastoralists The pastoralists are major landowners. They are usually the magistrates of their local area. They used the legal power as magistrates to force convict labourers to work hard . They built their wealth on the unpaid labour of the convicts . This is why they supported the transportation of convicts to Australia .
Emancipists The emancipists are ex-convicts who were fully or conditionally pardoned for conduct or service . They became successful farmers, lawyers, architects and government administrators. They contributed a lot to the development of Australian society . By the 1820s , a third of the richest men in the colony were emancipists , among them were Mary Reiby and James Ruse .
The “Washminster “ form polity The “Washminster “ form of polity is adopted by the Australian government . It is a mixture of the US Washington system of
government and the British Westminster system . This means that the political structure of the government is based on a Federation of States with a three-tier system of government . However , the chief executive is a Prime Minster , instead of a President as in the US system .
The Governor-General The Governor-General is the formal head of the executive branch of the government .He is the representative of the Queen in Australia . However , as the British monarch as no real power in Australia , the
Governor-General acts only on the advice of the Executive Council , which is made up of himself and the Cabinet .
Multiculturalism Multiculturalism was adopted in 1973s. It was comprised of 3 areas of policy : Cultural Identity , which means the right to express and share one’s cultural heritage ; Social Justice , the right to equal treatment and opportunity ; and Economic Efficiency , the need to maintain and develop the skills of all Australians regardless of their backgrounds .
The White Australia Policy The White Australia Policy was officially adopted by the Commonwealth of Australian in 1901 , in the Immigration Restriction Act . It was made to stop Chinese and other non-British migrants from entering and settling down in Australia . This was mainly achieved through a dictation test in a European language . The White Australia Policy was officially abolished in 1973.
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